Economy

San Juan Canal

Some Maps on Another TL I working on.

10. Hail Jefferson, The American Caesar

The Second Anglo-American War (or War of 1808) initiated with a strong, well-prepared American offensive into British North America. In Upper Canada, General Jacob Brown drove his troops across the Niagara River, hastily capturing St. Catherine’s and proceeding around Lake Ontario towards Mississaugua and Fort York [1] Supporting Harrison on the water was Commodore Oliver Perry, who managed to defeated the British fleet in the First Battle of Lake Eerie.

The first months of the war against Britain coincided with the presidential elections of 1808. Because the war seemed to be going well on during its early stages, the Republicans opted for consistency, and offered Jefferson the opportunity to run for a third term. A move that most Federalist saw as a gross expansion of executive powers, and contrary to Washington’s precedent. Worried about the economic effects of the war, the Federalists campaigned in favor of ending hostilities and finding a diplomatic resolution to the conflict, fully aware that Britain would be hard pressed by the wars in Europe. But despite their solid victory across New England, the Federalists found it hard to fight “the patriotism of youth”. Jefferson replaced James Madison with George Clinton as his VP nominee, in order to appeal to New York, and won an election for the third time. 

But by Jefferson’s second re-inauguration the war had turned into a stalemate. Despite the early victories, General Brown failed to move past Mississagua before winter, severely setting back the American plans. Meanwhile in the east, American forces had prepared and planned for an invasion of Canada since the time of the Revolution. Yet the American forces were unable to capture any of Canada’s major cities above the St. Laurence. By winter, with most of the battlefields frozen, the war moved to the seas where Britain had the clear advantage. 

The Royal Navy managed to successfully blockade all major New England ports and Chesapeake Bay. The United States Navy, an organization still in its cradle, proved unable to prevent the British from laying siege to Boston and New York City in the spring of 1809.  Once again trade in New England plummeted, while a sporadic riots against the war in New England grew in intensity and frequency. 

[1] Toronto

8. The Fall of Portugal and Consequences

After the Treaties of Tilsit, the wars in Europe had passed into a lull, with the end of The War of The Fourth Coalition; Napoleon’s “Continental System” now fought an economic war against Great Britain. Much to the Emperor’s irritation, Portugal continued to trade with France’s great rival, and allowed the Royal Navy to use Lisbon’s ports as part of its operations against France. 

After signing an alliance with Manuel de Godoy, the Prime Minister of Spain, Napoleon sent his army into Portugal under Jean-Andoche Junot with the assistance of three Spanish divisions. Paralyzed by surprise and indecision, the Portuguese offered little resistance. Junot occupied Lisbon on October 1807 forcing the Prince Regent, and much of the Portuguese court, to flee to Brazil. Despite the easy surrender by the authorities, heavy resistance by the Portuguese population would incite the Peninsular War less than a year later. 

The escalation of the rebellion, and fear of Spain turning on France, pushed Napoleon to order his army into Spain and force Charles IV to abdicate. The King was replaced by his son Ferdinand VII, who was by then engaged to Napoleon’s sister, Pauline. But just like in Portugal, the general population of Spain rose in rebellion against the French and “their puppet king”. [1] The rebellions were not limited to Spain; across the Spanish possessions in the America’s insurgencies rose up against the Napoleonic controlled Spain.

Following the insurrections, the British fleet landed in Portugal fully re-engaging in hostilities against France. 

Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil 

9. Britain’s Other Headache

As the Napoleonic Wars continued to escalate, their effects began to be felt in America. Napoleon had attempted a re-conquest of Haiti, as part of his attempt to spread his influence into the Americas. But the forces under the command Charles Leclerc, at the time Napoleon’s brother-in-law, were defeated in 1804 by the local resistance. Leclerc himself was killed in battle and by 1805 Haiti was once again an independent nation. [1] As a consequence, Napoleon slowly abandoned his North American ambitions. Seeing a window of opportunity James Monroe, immediately began negotiations with both France and Spain. In the spring of 1808 a letter from Livingston reached President Jefferson; France was willing to accept the American claim to the entirety of Louisiana if an agreement was reached between Spain and the United States. Livingston urged the president to accept Spain’s terms and take hold of the continent. In April 1808, Spain (under French pressure) sold the remainder of Louisiana to the United States for 7 million dollars. Britain was outraged when news of the purchase reached London (possibly earlier than Washington) and refused to acknowledge the American claims, arguing that Spain had been coerced to give up those lands.

As, Britain tightened its grip on the Atlantic trade, it became common for the British navy to seize and search American merchant ships, particularly those thought to be trading with France. In the summer of 1807 The British warship HMS Leopard attacked and boarded the USS Chesapeake near the coast of Virginia while looking for deserters. When the Chesapeake refused to be boarded, the Leopard opened fire killing four American’s including Commodore James Barron. [2]

Not surprisingly the American public was outraged! President Jefferson himself noted, “Never have I seen this country in such a state of exasperation”, and asked Congress to place economic pressure on Britain with an embargo. Unfortunately, the embargo had the unintended consequence of placing the nation at odds against itself. Without the possibility of trade with Britain, New England spiraled into an economic downturn, sparking riots in several border towns inside Maine and Vermont. Rumors that Britain was inciting these rebellions were rampant, and a young group of Congressmen, led by Henry Clay, known as the War Hawks urged Congress to declare war on Britain.

As a preemptive measure, Jefferson did order US troops to reinforce disputed the border alongside Vermont and Maine, as well as disputed regions west of Lake Superior. Skirmishes on the frontier were common, but the arrival of American troops in Fond du Lac [3] unnerved the local British garrison into thinking war had already started back east. When news reached Washington that British forces had moved south of the St Louis river and occupied the American outpost, the United States officially declared a State of War against the United Kingdom, on April 4th of 1808. 

The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

[1] So Leclerc doesn’t get sick with yellow fever, so he lives a little longer. Yet he still dies in time for Pauline to marry Ferdinand VII. 

[2] He dies in TTL, rather than just being wounded.

[3] OTL’s Duluth

7. South by Southwest and Back to New Spain

For Aaron Burr, the war between the United States and Britain, began much too soon. Before he could spring his plan into action, New Orleans had been reinforced, and Wilkinson was deposed form his position as governor of the territory. Furthermore, it was now clear the France had thrown its weight in favor of the United States as Louisiana was now officially part of the American Republic. Burr found a new opportunity, when New Spain declared its independence, in the summer of 1808. 

The early years of Jose Joaquin de Iturrigaray’s time as a viceroy could have been described as the calm before the storm. Like his predecessor Iturrigaray arrived to a New Spain in the midst of rebellion. But in contrast to his predecessor, Iturrigaray had a friendly and jovial character that made him popular amongst the population. 

An unusual viceregal union; Iturrigaray with his María Inés de Jáuregi - daughter of the Viceroy of Peru - and his children. 

He had brought with him a large quantity of arms from Cuba to supply the regiments of Veracruz, Mexico, and Puebla in order to quell any major uprisings in the main cities of New Spain. And the military was indeed successful at this task. He sponsored the Prussian explorer, Alexader von Humboldt, who arrived in 1803 to make extensive, and much needed, research on New Spain’s geography. Humboldt’s publishing’s had a curious effect on the criollo and mestizo populations; the news of New Spain’s riches stirred a sense of national pride. Iturrigaray himself was impressed and openly expressed the possible potential that an autonomous New Spain could achieve. 

The viceroy’s sympathy towards the criollos resulted in major discontent amongst the peninsulares, which provoked The Audiencia into disallowing most of Iturrigaray’s proposals. Tensions between the Audiencia and Iturrigaray escalated, when the viceroy Iturrigaray appointed Francisco Antonio de Velázquez command of the defenses along the Gulf Coast, as Velazquez had been previously tried for treason for assisting the criollo conspiracies. When a new rebellion broke out Guanajuato under Pedro Martin, the Viceroy asked for further funding and assistance in putting down the rebellion. The Audiencia not only refused but was now openly looking for a replacement for Iturrigaray. 

However the wars in Europe delayed the possibility of any replacement arriving anytime soon. On July 13 1808, news was received in Mexico City that Charles IV had abdicated and the French were now occupying Spain. That same week a group of criollo councilmen presented Iturrigaray with a plan to form a provisional autonomous government in New Spain with Iturrigaray at its head. The plan was accepted by Juan Francisco Azcárte and Diego Leña, leaders of the Ayuntamientos in Mexico City and Veracruz. The Audiencia would never recognize the plan, but this did not stop the creation of a congress parallel to it by the criollos.

The spark ignited sooner than anyone anticipated! When a representative of the Junta of Seville finally arrived in New Spain later that summer, the peninsular government recognized and ordered the arrest of Iturrigaray and other insurgent leaders. At the same time Melchor de Talamante, a leader in the criollo government openly declared the dissolution of all political ties between Spain and what he called

‘The Sovereign State of The Americas’. At Talamante’s cry Mexico City broke into riots. The Spanish forces, lead by Gabriel J Yermo, were moved in to suppress the revolt. 

On September 9th 1808, before Yermo managed to enter the capital, Jose de Iturrigaray publicly announced his resignation as viceroy of New Spain, his support for the insurgency, and the abolition of the Audiencia. Because Yermo’s forces were at the gates of Mexico City at the moment of his announcement, Iturrigaray hastily left the city and fled to Queretaro, where the governor, Miguel Dominguez and his wife Josefa Ortiz had openly declared in favor of the insurgency. In Queretaro, Iturrigaray met Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest who had managed to raise a considerably sized militia in a rather short time and James Wilkinson an American with a rather odd proposal.

Rather than heading east towards New Orleans, Burr and his forces marched south into New Spain.When Juan Bautista de las Casas and Erasmo Seguin [1] declared their support for the rebellion, Burr seized the opportunity and offered his support to the insurgents. With Burr’s aid Tejas easily fell into the rebels hands and San Antonio became the hub of all northern rebellions. Early in 1809 Burr’s army had crossed the Rio Bravo and captured Laredo in Santander [2]. Once there, Burr was informed that Wilkinson had contacted Iturrigaray in Queretaro and was negotiating the terms for their support. Though the ex-viceroy had little to offer at the time Burr was conscious that support for each other would be beneficial for both parties.

Viceroy. Leader. Rebel. Patriot.

[1] Juan Seguin’s father. 

[2] Tamaulipas used to be called Santander during the viceroyalty. The name remains in TTL.